Apparatus and methods for modulating refractive index

ABSTRACT

An iono-refractive structure that includes one or more ion insertion layers having a real portion and an imaginary portion of the dielectric constant is provided. While both the real portion and the imaginary portion of the dielectric constant change, the change in the imaginary portion is less than the change in the real portion at the wavelength of interest or at the operational wavelength. The iono-refractive structure may be suitable for the fabrication of or integration with tunable optical filters, wavelength-selective optical elements, active modulated interferometers, optical phase shifters, optical phased array beam steering, optical phased array beam tracking, tunable optical filters, sensors, variable lenses, tunable diffraction gratings, and other optical components.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit of U.S. provisional application No.60/421,617, filed Oct. 25, 2002, which is hereby incorporated byreference herein in its entirety.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to apparatus and methods for modulatingrefractive index. More particularly, the invention relates to inducing achange of refractive index in one or more layers of an iono-refractivestructure that are capable of ion intercalation or release. The ionintercalation or release is accompanied by a change of refractive indexwithout a significant increase in the optical absorption at thewavelength of interest or at the operating wavelength. The structure maybe suitable for the fabrication of or integration with tunable opticalfilters, wavelength-selective optical elements, active modulatedinterferometers, variable phase shifters, sensors, lenses, and otheroptical components.

Various approaches have been employed for modulating refractive index ina wide range of optical devices including interferometric opticalwaveguide-based switches, light detection and ranging (LIDAR) remotesensors, optical Doppler Tomography, filters for optical communications,and instruments to detect displacement. In most instances, modulatingrefractive index involves application of a voltage across a liquidcrystal film, or across an electro-optical film, such as lithiumniobate, or through carrier induced refractive index changes in, forexample, gallium arsenide (GaAs). Elasto-optic, magneto-optic, andacousto-optic effects can also provide a change in refractive index.

It has been shown that the refractive index of many semiconducting metaloxides depends on the degree of intercalation of ions entering thematrix—i.e., the extent to which ions are inserted into the metal oxide.For example, the real and imaginary portions of the refractive index oftungsten oxide at 550 nm change significantly as lithium ions areinserted into the tungsten oxide (Rubin et al., “Optical Indices ofLithiated Electrochromic Oxides,” in Lawrence Berkeley National LabsPublication 39410 (1996)). As described by Rubin, the real portion ofthe refractive index changes from 1.95 to 1.7 after ion intercalationwhile the imaginary portion of the refractive index changes by 0.1. Atlonger wavelengths, there may be little or no change of the real portionof the refractive index as the imaginary portion of the refractive indexchanges from an extinction coefficient of 0 to 0.65.

Meanwhile, a considerable change in the refractive index of sputteredtungsten oxide with lithium ion insertion has been observed in the 2micron to 12 micron wavelength range (Hutchins et al., “InfraredReflectance Modulation in Tungsten Oxide Based Electrochromic Devices,”Electrochemica Acta, Vol. 46, at 1983–1988 (2001)). Such a change inrefractive index of tungsten oxide could be used to create a frontsurface reflectance device (Hutchins et al., “Electrochromic TungstenOxide Films for Variable Reflectance Devices,” Proceedings of the SPIE,Vol. 4458, at 138–145 (2001)).

This follows in part from the relationship between the real portion ofthe dielectric constant, ε_(r), determined by the phase velocity, andthe imaginary portion of the dielectric constant, ε_(i), determined bythe absorption. The dielectric constant is also proportional to thesquare of the refractive index, thus the refractive index also has areal portion and an imaginary portion. It is well known from theKramers-Kronig equation that the real portion of the dielectric constantcan be expressed as an integral of the imaginary portion.${ɛ_{r}\left( \omega_{0} \right)} = {1 + {{\frac{2}{\pi} \cdot P}{\int_{0}^{\infty}{\frac{\omega \cdot {ɛ_{i}(\omega)}}{\omega^{2} - \omega_{0}^{2}}\ {\mathbb{d}\omega}}}}}$${ɛ_{i}\left( \omega_{0} \right)} = {{{- \frac{2}{\pi}} \cdot P}{\int_{0}^{\infty}\;{\frac{\omega_{0} \cdot \left( {{ɛ_{r}(\omega)} - 1} \right)}{\omega^{2} - \omega_{0}^{2}}\ {\mathbb{d}\omega}}}}$where ω is the complex angular frequency, ω_(o) refers to the frequencyof an optical transition, and P is the principal value of the integral.It should be noted that the Kramers-Kronig equation may not becompletely valid for thin films (Leveque et al., “Ellipsometry onSputter-Deposited Tin-Oxide Films: Optical Constants VersusStoichiometry, Hydrogen Content, and Amount of ElectrochemicallyIntercalated Lithium,” Applied Optics, Vol. 37, at 7334–7341 (1990)).

However, many of these approaches that provide a change in refractiveindex are based on the alteration of the extinction coefficient,density, or coloration of their respective devices. Such approaches aredescribed, for example, in Lach et al. U.S. Pat. No. 6,498,358.Moreover, while each of these approaches provides some change inrefractive index, these approaches generally suffer from highmanufacturing costs, constraints on the operating environment (e.g.,temperature and pressure), and drawbacks related to system and substratecompatibility. Even further, many of these approaches significantlychange the transmissivity while changing the refractive index, therebylimiting the applicability of the device.

It would therefore be desirable to provide apparatus and methods formodulating refractive index without significantly altering thetransmissivity.

It would also be desirable to provide apparatus and methods formodulating refractive index that is easily integrated with opticalcomponents.

It would also be desirable to provide apparatus and methods formodulating refractive index via the insertion of an ionic species intoan intercalating metal oxide without significantly altering thetransmissivity of the metal oxide.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In accordance with this invention, a thin film structure that is capableof ion intercalation or release, where the ion intercalation or releaseis accompanied by a change of refractive index without significantoptical absorption at the wavelength of interest or at the operatingwavelength is provided. The thin film structure is referred to herein asan “iono-refractive structure” because it includes one or more ioninsertion layers having a real portion and an imaginary portion of thedielectric constant. While both the real portion and the imaginaryportion of the dielectric constant change, the change in the imaginaryportion is either less than the change in the real portion or limited toacceptable values specific to the operation of a particular device atthe wavelength of interest or at the operational wavelength. Theiono-refractive structure may be suitable for the fabrication of orintegration with tunable optical filters, wavelength-selective opticalelements, active modulated interferometers, variable phase shifters,sensors, lenses, and other optical components.

The iono-refractive structure may include an ion conduction layer and anion insertion layer. The ion conduction layer is preferably a materialselected for its compatibility with the ion insertion layer. Ionconduction layer may be a layer of metal oxide, such as, for example,lithium phosphorous oxynitride, lithium aluminium fluoride, lithiumphosphate, or lithium orthophosphate, lanthanum lithium titanate. Theion insertion layer is preferably a metal oxide, such as vanadiumpentoxide or Li₂O—P₂O₅—WO₃, deposited on the surface of the ionconduction layer.

In response to the application of an electric field across the ioninsertion layer and the ion conduction layer, ions are inserted from theion conduction layer to the ion insertion layer. In some embodiments, anion storage layer may be provided that store ions for transport acrossthe ion conduction layer and into the ion insertion layer. The responseto inserting ions into the ion insertion layer includes a change in boththe real portion and the imaginary portion of the dielectric constant.The change in the imaginary portion of the dielectric constant is lessthan the change of the real portion of the dielectric constant at thewavelength of interest or at the operational wavelength.

The change in the dielectric constant may be reversed. Ions may beextracted from the ion insertion layer back to the ion conduction layer.Subjecting the ion insertion layer to these conditions may lead to caseswhich result in a change of the imaginary portion of the dielectricconstant to a value that is within 2% of the initial imaginary portionand a change of the real portion of the dielectric constant to a valuethat is within 2% of the initial real portion.

In some embodiments, the iono-refractive structure may be included inembodiments where the beam of light enters perpendicular to the plane ofthe device (e.g., wavelength filters, Fabry-Perot interferometers,multiple layer dielectric coatings, laser external cavities, etc.). Inother suitable embodiments, the iono-refractive structure may be includein embodiments where the light beam propagates along the plane of thedevice (e.g., by an external coupler or generated by a laser or alight-emitting diode coupled directly to an optical waveguide). Suchembodiments may include, for example, active interferometers, FourierTransform Interferometers (FTIR), lenses with variable focal length, andvarious communications devices.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The above and other objects and advantages of the invention will beapparent upon consideration of the following detailed description, takenin conjunction with accompanying drawings, in which like referencerefers to like parts throughout, and in which:

FIG. 1 is a cross-sectional view of an iono-refractive structure inaccordance with various embodiments of the present invention;

FIG. 2 shows an illustrative tunable Fabry-Perot etalon filter that hasan iono-refractive structure in accordance with various embodiments ofthe present invention; and

FIGS. 3A–3F show illustrative optical waveguide structures that may becontrolled by an iono-refractive structure in accordance with variousembodiments of the present invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present invention involves thin film structures. For convenienceherein, these thin film structures are sometimes referred to as“iono-refractive structures” or “iono-refractive circuits” because theyinclude one or more ion insertion layers having a real portion and animaginary portion of the dielectric constant. While both the realportion of the dielectric constant and the imaginary portion of thedielectric constant change, the change in the imaginary portion iseither less than the change in the real portion or limited to acceptablevalues specific to the operation of a particular device at thewavelength of interest or at the operational wavelength.

FIG. 1 illustrates schematically, in cross section, a portion of aniono-refractive structure 100 which may be relevant to or useful inconnection with certain embodiments of the present invention. Structure100 includes a substrate 102, a first electrode layer 104, an ionconduction layer 106, an ion insertion layer 108, and a second electrodelayer 110.

As used herein, the term “layer” refers to any suitable layer, region,film, or any other variation thereof, deposited using any suitabletechnique.

In accordance with some embodiments, structure 100 may also include anion storage layer 112 positioned between first electrode layer 104 andion conduction layer 106. Structure 100 may also include an interfacelayer 114 at the interface between the ion conduction layer 106 and theion insertion layer 108. As will be explained more fully below,interface layer 114 helps in maintaining uniform and accelerated ionflow from ion storage layer 112 or ion conduction layer 106 into ioninsertion layer 108.

In some embodiments, substrate 102 may be substantially transparent.Substrate 102 may be a glass substrate, a polymeric substrate, or anyother suitable substrate that is substantially transparent. In otherembodiments, substrate may be a reflective, opaque, or partiallytransparent substrate. Substrate 102 may also take the form of nonplanarcomplex shapes, patterns, arrays or designs.

First electrode layer 104 and second electrode layer 110 are preferablyconductive oxide layers that are substantially transparent. Althoughfirst electrode layer 104 and second electrode layer 110 are generallydescribed herein as being substantially transparent, this embodiment isnot limited only to substantially transparent conductive oxideelectrodes. Rather, first electrode layer 104 and/or second electrodelayer 110 may be reflective, opaque, or partially transparent. Materialsthat are suitable for first electrode layer 104 and second electrodelayer 110 include, for example, indium tin oxide (ITO), fluorine-dopedtin oxide (SnO₂:F), antimony-doped tin oxide (SnO₂:Sb), members of thefamily In₂O₃—Ga₂O₃—ZnO, any other suitable metals, and any othersuitable electrically conductive materials. In some embodiments, firstelectrode layer 104 and second electrode layer 110 may be formed innonplanar complex shapes, patterns, arrays or designs to controldistributions of indexes of refraction. First electrode layer 104 andsecond electrode layer 110 may be formed to produce a uniform change inthe refractive index or a spatially non-uniform distribution in theindex of refraction.

Ion conduction layer 106 is preferably a material selected for itscompatibility with the overlying ion insertion layer 108. Materials thatare suitable for ion conduction layer 106 include lithium phosphorousoxynitride, lithium aluminium fluoride, lithium phosphate, lithiumorthophosphate, lanthanum lithium titanate, and families of materials ofthe composition Li₂O—P₂O₅—[A_(b)O_(x)], where A_(b)O_(x) may be WO₃,TiO₂ or Fe₂O₃, or any appropriate combination thereof. Generally, thesematerials are metal oxides that include lithium. In some embodiments,the thickness of ion conduction layer 106 is substantially thin tominimize the required electric field for transporting ions across ionconduction layer 106—i.e., a thin ion conduction layer 106 reduces thetransit time of ions across ion conduction layer 106. Typically, ionconduction layer 106 has a thickness less then about 0.10 microns.

Ion insertion layer 108 is preferably a metal oxide deposited on thesurface of ion conduction layer 106. Ion insertion layer 108 ispreferably selected for its capability of being intercalated with ions.Materials that are suitable for ion insertion layer 108 include oxidesof tungsten, niobium, vanadium, cerium, titanium, molybdenum, nickel,and cobalt. In some embodiments, the ion insertion layer isLi₂O—P₂O₅—WO₃, in which the P₂O₅ composition is about 30% to about 50%of the layer by weight, the WO₃ composition is about 20% to about 30% byweight, and the Li₂O composition is the remainder of the layer byweight. In another suitable approach, the ion insertion layer isvanadium pentoxide. When ion insertion layer 108 is vanadium pentoxide,ion insertion layer 108 preferably has a thickness in the range of about0.25 microns to about 0.6 microns. The ion insertion layer may bedeposited by thermal evaporation, electron beam evaporation, chemicalvapor deposition, plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition, magnetronsputtering, ion sputtering, sol-gel deposition, co-deposition withpolymeric or transition metal oxide materials, deposition from a melt,or any other suitable approach.

It should also be noted that for optimal use of many of the embodimentsdescribed herein may require that ion insertion layer 106 and ionstorage layer 108 do not substantially change color (transmissivity)upon oxidation or reduction processes.

Ion storage layer 112 is preferably a material selected for itscompatibility with the overlying ion conduction layer 106 and ioninsertion layer 108. Materials that are suitable for ion storage layer112 include cerium oxide, cerium oxide-titanium oxide having a lowtitanium or a low cerium concentration, cerium vanadate, iron vanadate,cerium oxide-tin oxide, cerium oxide-zirconium oxide, cerium/antimonytin oxide, antimony/tin oxide, molybdenum/tin oxide, indiumorthovanadate, tin oxide, iron/vanadium oxide (1:9), iron/titaniumoxide, and iron/niobium oxide. When ion storage layer 112 is tin oxide,ion storage layer 112 preferably has a thickness of about 0.25 microns.

Ion storage layer 112 stores ions for transport across ion conductionlayer 106 and into ion insertion layer 108. Furthermore, it should benoted that the transmissivity of ion storage layer 112 does notsubstantially change upon ion egress or ingress. It should also be notedthat ion storage layer 112 may be deposited to prevent unwantedelectrochemical reactions—e.g., the electrolysis of water.

Interface layer 114 may contribute to uniform ion flow. In someembodiments, interface layer 114 is deposited via co-depositingpolyoxometalate or any other suitable first ion conduction cluster as acontinuous phase across the boundary between ion conduction layer 106and ion insertion layer 108 while simultaneously depositing a second ionconduction cluster that is less conducting that the first ion conductioncluster.

In response to the application of an electric field across firstelectrode layer 104 and second electrode layer 110, ions are insertedfrom ion conduction layer 106 to ion insertion layer 108. If ion storagelayer 112 is present, ions may also be inserted from ion storage layer112 across ion conduction layer 106. It should also be noted that theinsertion of ions into ion insertion layer 108 is reversible. The ionsmay also be extracted from ion insertion layer 108 and inserted backinto ion conduction layer 106, thereby reversing the process.

However, it should be noted that ions may be inserted into or extractedfrom ion insertion layer 108 using any other suitable approach. Forexample, instead of applying an electric field, ions may be insertedinto ion insertion layer 108 via an electrochemical reaction.

It should also be noted that iono-refractive structure 100 having avanadium pentoxide ion insertion layer 108 and a tin oxide ion storagelayer 112 is especially advantageous because the refractive index ofvanadium oxide and the refractive index of tin oxide change in oppositedirections upon lithium intercalation.

Referring back to the Kramers-Kronig equation, the dielectric constantof a material has a real portion and an imaginary portion. Typically,the response to inserting ions into ion insertion layer 108 includes achange in both the real portion and the imaginary portion of thedielectric constant. However, subjecting the ion insertion layer tocertain conditions may lead to cases which result in a change of theimaginary portion of the dielectric constant (Δ_(εi)) that is less thanthe change of the real portion of the dielectric constant (Δ_(εr)) atthe wavelength of interest or at the operation wavelength. Someembodiments may include interaction of ion insertion layer 108 withlight at a wavelength having an energy that is considerably less thanthe bandgap (E_(g))—i.e., sub-bandgap energy.

The change in the dielectric constant may be reversed. For example, ionsmay be extracted from the ion insertion layer back to the ion conductionlayer. This may result in a change of the imaginary portion of thedielectric constant to a value that is within 2% of the initialimaginary portion of the dielectric constant and a change of the realportion of the dielectric constant to a value that is within 2% of theinitial real portion of the dielectric constant.

Some embodiments may include selecting the ion insertion layer and theion storage layer from materials that are weakly electrochromic. Moreparticularly, a material is strongly electrochromic when theavailability of multiple valence states of the ion insertion layerpermits the localization of charge on a transition metal site that canbe transferred to a neighboring site upon photon absorption—i.e., thesmall polaron effect. That is, the optical absorption of the ioninsertion layer is caused by electron exchange between adjacenttransition metal sites. For example, when the ion insertion layer istungsten oxide (WO₃), electrochromism is caused by reduction of W⁶⁺states to W⁵⁺ states upon ion insertion—i.e., small polaron transitionsbetween two nonequivalent sites of tungsten (W⁵⁺ and W⁶⁺). The insertedelectrons are localized in W⁵⁺ sites and polarize their surroundinglattice to form small polarons. Incident photons are absorbed by thesesmall polarons that hop from one site to another. The enhancement in theabsorption of oxygen deficient WO₃ is thought to relate to polaronshopping between W⁴⁺ and W⁵⁺ states.

Some embodiments in which the change of the imaginary portion of thedielectric constant is less than the imaginary portion of the dielectricconstant may also include a structural transition of the lattice of theion insertion layer. A structural transition of the lattice provides achange in the refractive index with minimal change in transmissivity. Insome embodiments, the change of the lattice structure may accompanylattice expansion or contraction during ion insertion. In otherembodiments, a change in lattice structure may result from athermally-induced lattice expansion or contraction or from following anion insertion process with an ion implantation process.

Some embodiments may include thermal annealing the ion insertion layerin an oxygen atmosphere. WO₃ can be bleached by heating the layer in anoxygen atmosphere. Similarly, a WO₃ film fabricated in a high oxygenenvironment may exhibit reduced coloration efficiency. Thus, annealingthe ion insertion layer causes the change in absorption to bediminished. This occurs through reduction of effects associated withpolaron hopping between W⁴⁺ and W⁵⁺ states.

Some embodiments may include alloying the ion insertion layer with othermolecular constituents not providing a small polaronic effect in thewavelength range in which the device operates (such as cerium oxide, tinoxide, vanadium oxide, and any appropriate combinations thereof). Asused herein, the term “color center” is used to describe a location oftrapped electrons or holes within a metal oxide lattice that gives riseto optical absorption through interaction with incident light. Forexample, electrons trapped at metal ion sites, such as W⁶⁺ in WO₃ orTi⁴⁺ in TiO₂, exhibit a broad absorption peak in the infrared and thenear infrared spectral range. The number or strength of color centersinduced by ion insertion or removal in the ion insertion layer isdiminished through alloying.

Some embodiments may include material constituents that diminish thechange in optical absorption accompanying ion insertion. This may beaccomplished by adding cerium, tin, zirconium, or other metals havingoxides that do not lead to significant electrochromic reactions.

However, any other suitable approach for providing a desirable ratio ofΔ_(εi)/Δ_(εr) may also be used. In some embodiments, Δ_(εi)/Δ_(εr) lessthan 1.5. In some embodiments, Δ_(εi)/Δ_(εr) is less than about 0.4.That is, iono-refractive structure 100 is operating at a sub-bandgapwavelength and away from optical absorbance transitions.

The following non-limiting, illustrative examples illustrate variouscombinations of materials useful in structure 100 in accordance withvarious alternative embodiments. These examples are merely illustrative,and it is not intended that the invention be limited to theseillustrative examples.

These various alternative embodiments may be separated into threegroups: embodiments where the beam of light enters perpendicular to theplane of the device, embodiments where the light is coupled to thedevice—i.e., propagates along the plane of the device, and a combinationof the two.

In embodiments where the beam of light enters perpendicular to the planeof the device, the iono-refractive structure may be used for wavelengthfiltering. Wavelength filters may be useful for fabricating apparatusand structures, such as Fabry-Perot interferometers, multiple layerdielectric coatings, and laser external cavities.

In one embodiment, the iono-refractive structures may be used tofabricate a Fabry-Perot etalon. A Fabry-Perot etalon is the simplestform of a Fabry-Perot interferometer. Generally, a Fabry-Perot etalonmakes use of multiple reflections between two closely spaced partiallymirrored surfaces. The etalon may have dielectric material of a givenindex of refraction and a given thickness. A portion of the light istransmitted each time the light reaches the mirrored surface, therebyresulting in multiple offset beams which can interfere with each other.The accumulating number of interfering beams produces an interferometerwith high resolution. The etalon may be used as a tunable filter byselecting the index of refraction of the medium in the cavity to selecta given resonant wavelength. Using the tunable Fabry-Perot etalon, thebandwidth of each transmission peak is narrow and the given resonantwavelength is transmitted with maximum transmission.

In this embodiment, the iono-refractive structure may modulate therefractive index of one or more coatings on the mirrored or glass platesthat form the etalon. The tunable Fabry-Perot etalon may be used todevelop a tunable narrow-band filter, which may be used in LIDARdetection, optical communications, or optical non-destructive evaluation(NDE).

The general equation for the transmission coefficient of an ideal FabryPerot filter is:$\frac{I_{\lambda}}{I_{o\;\lambda}} = {\frac{{T(\lambda)}^{2}}{\left\lbrack {1 - {R(\lambda)}^{2}} \right\rbrack}x\left\{ {1 + {\left\lbrack \frac{2\;{F(\lambda)}}{\pi} \right\rbrack^{2}{\sin^{2}\left\lbrack {\frac{2\pi\; d\mspace{11mu}\cos\;\theta}{\lambda} - {ɛ(\lambda)}} \right\rbrack}^{- 1}}} \right\}}$In this equation T(λ) and R(λ) are the wavelength dependent mirrortransmission and reflectivity, respectively, and F(λ) is theinterferometer finesse. The full width half maximum (FWHM) pass-band ofthe Fabry-Perot filter with light impinging at vertical incidence can becomputed from the following equation:${\bigtriangleup\lambda} = \frac{\left( {1 - R} \right)\lambda_{R}^{2}}{2\pi\;{d(R)}^{1/2}}$where R is the mirror reflectivity, λ_(R) is the resonance wavelength,and d is the micro-cavity thickness. In some embodiments, theFabry-Perot can be built as a free-standing device on one side of asubstrate. Typically, the total thickness of the device is on the orderof about 20 microns. For a micro-cavity thickness of 20 microns, amirror reflectivity of 0.99, and a resonance wavelength of 1.08 microns,the FWHM is about 1.8 nm.

It should be noted that the parallelism of the Fabry-Perot filter isimportant to achieve the highest throughput at a given stack thickness.Optical flats may be obtained with a parallelism of less than 3 arcminutes or better.

In another suitable approach, an optical flat may be used as asubstrate. Optical flats may be provided having a diameter of 50 mm,flatness of both surfaces to λ/20, and a surface quality of 60/40scratch and dig. These surface flats have roughness on the order ofabout 0.5 nm. For a micro-cavity thickness of 1 mm, a mirrorreflectivity of 0.99, and a resonance wavelength of 1.08 microns, theFWHM is about 0.036 nm.

In one example, a vanadium pentoxide layer may be deposited along with atransparent conductive electrode, an ion conduction layer, such asLi₂O—P₂O₅, and an ion storage layer, such as tin oxide, on one surfaceof the optical flat and partial mirrors on both surfaces of the opticalflat. Depositing a thin film electrode on the free surface of the ionstorage layer or the ion conduction layer (e.g., Li₂O—P₂O₅) as well ason the surface of the ion insertion layer allows the application of anelectric field across the ion insertion layer. The electric field drives(i.e., inserts) the lithium or hydrogen ions of the ion storage layer orthe ion conduction layer into the ion insertion layer (e.g., vanadiumpentoxide layer), thereby altering the refractive index of the vanadiumpentoxide while not substantially altering the transmissivity.

In operation, for example, an optical source component may be configuredto generate light (e.g., photons) to pass through the Fabry-Perotapparatus. By illuminating the ion insertion layer (e.g., vanadiumpentoxide) in the Fabry-Perot apparatus with a light having sub-bandgapenergy, the real portion of the refractive index of the ion insertionlayer preferably changes by more than about 0.1, while the imaginaryportion of the refractive index of the ion insertion layer preferablychanges by less than about 0.2 in response to ion insertion by theapplication of an electric field. The wavelength of light illuminatedpassing through the ion insertion layer of the Fabry-Perot apparatuscorresponds to a sub-bandgap energy, where the sub-bandgap energy isbetween about 0.5 to about 0.75 of the bandgap of the ion insertionlayer. By modulating the real portion of the refractive index withoutsubstantially altering the imaginary portion (i.e., transmissivity), theion insertion layer may be used as a tunable narrow-band filter. Suchfilters may be used in LIDAR detection, optical communications, oroptical non-destructive evaluation (NDE).

The change in refractive index of the vanadium pentoxide layer occurs atan electric field of about 1.0 volts. However, it should be noted thatsince both vanadium pentoxide and Li₂O—P₂O₅ are sensitive to humidenvironments, an insulating protective thin film is preferably depositedover both layers. The insulating protective thin film is preferablyaluminum oxide.

FIG. 2 shows an illustrative tunable Fabry-Perot etalon filter inaccordance with various embodiments of the present invention. As shownin FIG. 2, the Fabry-Perot filter includes a substrate 220. Substrate220 may be a glass substrate, a polymeric substrate, or any othersuitable substrate. A dielectric stack 240 may be formed on thesubstrate to form the first mirror of the Fabry-Perot filter. Dielectricstack 240 may include, for example, alternating layers of dielectricmaterial to alter the reflectance of the Fabry-Perot filter. Forexample, dielectric stack 240 may include alternating layers of tungstenoxide, lithium orthophosphate, and vanadium oxide. In another suitableexample, dielectric stack 240 may include alternating layers of lithiumorthophosphate and vanadium oxide.

A low-dielectric constant optically-transmissive spacer 260 may beprovided on dielectric stack 240. As shown in FIG. 2, a zinc selenide(ZnSe) optical flat is provided. An iono-refractive structure 280—e.g.,a vanadium oxide ion insertion layer, a Li₂O—P₂O₅ ion conduction layer,and a tin oxide ion storage layer—may be formed on one or both sides ofspacer 22. Iono-refractive structure 260 may be used to select thecenter wavelength of interest. For example, by applying an electricfield, ions are inserted from the ion conduction layer to the ioninsertion layer. The ion storage layer may also insert ions across ionconduction layer and into the ion insertion layer. The second mirror ofthe Fabry-Perot filter is formed by depositing another dielectric stack240 on the iono-refractive structure 260.

The iono-refractive structure 260 may also include electrodes forapplying the electric field to produce a uniform change in therefractive index or a spatially non-uniform distribution of the index ofrefraction in the iono-refractive structure. Materials that are suitablefor the electrodes include, for example, indium tin oxide (ITO),fluorine-doped tin oxide (SnO₂:F), antimony-doped tin oxide (SnO₂:Sb),members of the family of In₂O₃—Ga₂O₃—ZnO, any other suitable metals, andany other suitable electrically conductive materials.

It should also be noted that the iono-refractive structure and thedielectric stack do not change transmissivity while altering thebandwidth of the Fabry-Perot etalon.

In another embodiment, the iono-refractive structure may be used tofabricate multiple layer dielectric coatings. That is, a highreflectance coating may be fabricated from multiple dielectric layershaving alternating high refractive index and low refractive index thinfilms. The optical admittance can be represented a function of therefractive index of the high refractive index layer (n_(H)) and the lowrefractive index layer (n_(L)).$Y = {\left( \frac{n_{H}}{n_{L}} \right)^{2p}\mspace{14mu}\frac{n_{H}^{2}}{n_{s}}}$where n_(s) is the refractive index of the substrate and (2p+1) is thenumber of layers in the dielectric stack.

In other embodiments where the beam of light is transported in the planeof the device (e.g., by an external coupler or generated by a laser or alight-emitting diode coupled directly to the optical waveguide), theiono-refractive structure may be used to modulate the wavefront of awaveguide. This may be used for fabricating apparatus, such as activeinterferometers, Fourier Transform interferometers (FTIR), a handheldFTIR, lenses with variable focal length, and various communicationsdevices. These devices may also be designed to alter the direction ofthe beam propagating in the waveguide or to provide a focus for thebeam.

The variable refractive index layers may serve as electric fieldcontrolled optical waveguides. FIGS. 3A–3F show illustrative opticalwaveguide structures that may be controlled by an iono-refractivestructure. The waveguides in FIGS. 3A–3F are structures through whichoptical signals (i.e., light waves) propagate from a first location to asecond location. As shown in FIGS. 3A–3F, waveguides may be in anyconvenient configuration and may include one or more straight segments,curved segments, or combinations of both. FIGS. 3A–3F show anelectroabsorption modulator, a Mach-Zehnder modulator, a directionalcoupler, an X coupler, an acoustooptic (diffraction) modulator, and amode transformer (digital optical switch), respectively.

Each device shown in FIGS. 3A–3F has an iono-refractive structure300—e.g., a vanadium pentoxide ion insertion layer, an ion conductionlayer, a tin oxide ion storage layer, and a transparent electricallyconductive oxide coated on a transparent substrate. In some embodiments,iono-refractive structure 300 may be formed on a portion (e.g., a strip)of the waveguide. Upon applying an electric field across iono-refractivestructure 300, the vanadium pentoxide ion insertion layer, ionconduction layer, tin oxide ion storage layer and transparentelectrically conductive oxide, a change in the refractive index of thewaveguide occurs in the region of iono-refractive structure. This regionof altered refractive index may be designed to alter the direction ofthe beam propagating in the waveguide or provide a focus for the beam.

One application of the electric field controlled optical waveguide wouldbe in the area of beam steering. In one suitable approach, light canpropagate in an optical waveguide consisting of a vanadium pentoxide ioninsertion layer, an ion conduction layer, a tin oxide ion storage layer,and a transparent electrically conductive oxide coated on a transparentsubstrate. In this example, the vanadium pentoxide layer has a thicknessin the range of about 0.25 microns to about 0.6 microns. The ionconduction layer has a thickness of less than about 0.10 microns and thetin oxide ion storage layer has a thickness in the range of about 0.25microns to about 0.6 microns. A circular electrode may be formed abovethe vanadium pentoxide ion insertion layer.

It should be noted that while this example discusses forming a circularelectrode above the ion insertion layer, an electrode of any suitableshape may be formed. For example, electrodes having circular,rectangular, cylindrical, or elliptical shapes may be formed. Electrodesmay also be formed using any suitable approach, such as, for example,electro-discharge machining (EDM), deposition and patterning, orconventional machining approaches.

Upon applying an electric field across the circular electrode, thevanadium pentoxide ion insertion layer, ion conduction layer, tin oxideion storage layer and transparent electrically conductive oxide, achange in the refractive index of the waveguide occurs in the region ofthe circular electrode. This region of altered refractive index—i.e.,the region of the circular electrode—may be designed to alter thedirection of the beam propagating in the waveguide or provide a focusfor the beam.

In several applications the iono-refractive structure may be formed atthe surface of an optical waveguide. It should also be noted that thethickness of the ion insertion layer and one of the opticallytransparent, electrically conducting electrodes is preferably less thanthe depth of the evanescent field emanating from the waveguide surface.

In yet another embodiment, these electric field controlled opticalwaveguides may be used to fabricate devices useful in the area ofFourier transform interferometric spectral detection. In thisembodiment, light entering the spectrometer passes through a beamsplitter connected to two arms of the interferometer. The two arms ofthe interferometer meet at a location where constructive and destructiveinterference would take place. Modulation of the refractive index of oneof the arms of the interferometer using ion insertion would result in ameans of scanning the phase of the interferometer. This approach isuseful in biophysical infrared modulation spectroscopy.

The iono-refractive structure may be used to develop a thin-film basedphase-shifting interferometer. One or more multiple layered structureseach having, for example, a transparent electrically conductive oxidelayer, a vanadium pentoxide ion insertion layer, an ion conductionlayer, a tin oxide ion insertion layer, and a transparent electricallyconductive oxide, may be placed between two thin glass sheets to form ashear plate.

In yet another suitable embodiment, the iono-refractive structure may beintegrated with a laser having a lasing mode right at the surface of thelaser. The iono-refractive structure may be used to precisely modulatethe output wavelength, thereby creating a tunable laser using theiono-refractive structure.

It should be noted that in some of these embodiments, the invention mayinclude a controller (not shown) for calculating the change inrefractive index with applied voltage and transferred ionic current. Forexample, when the iono-refractive structure is used as a wavelengthfilter, a controller may be provided that uses the change in refractiveindex with applied voltage and transferred ionic current to determinevariables, such as the electric field to be applied.

Thus, methods and apparatus for modulating refractive index using aniono-refractive structure, where the change in the imaginary portion ofthe dielectric constant is less than the change in the real portion ofthe dielectric constant, are provided. Persons skilled in the art willappreciate that the present invention can be practiced by other than thedescribed embodiments, which are presented for purposes of illustrationand not of limitation, and that the present invention is limited only bythe claims which follow.

1. A method for modulating a refractive index of an ion insertion layerin an optical device, the ion insertion layer having a dielectricconstant, the dielectric constant having a real portion and an imaginaryportion, the method comprising: providing an ion conduction layeradjacent the ion insertion layer; and inserting ions from the ionconduction layer into the ion insertion layer; wherein: during theinserting, the imaginary portion of the dielectric constant changes froma first value to a second value and the real portion of the dielectricconstant changes from a third value to a fourth value at the wavelengthof interest or at the operational wavelength; and the absolute value ofthe difference between the second value and the first value is less thanthe absolute value of the difference between the fourth value and thethird value.
 2. The method of claim 1 wherein the absolute value of thedifference between the second value and the first value divided by theabsolute value of the difference between the fourth value and the thirdvalue is less than 0.40.
 3. The method of claim 1 wherein the ioninsertion layer is vanadium pentoxide.
 4. The method of claim 1 whereinthe ion conduction layer comprises a metal oxide.
 5. The method of claim1 wherein the ion conduction layer comprises a metal oxide havinglithium.
 6. The method of claim 1 wherein the ion conduction layer isLi₂O—P₂O₅—A_(b)O_(x), wherein A_(b)O_(x) is selected from the groupconsisting of WO₃, TiO₂, and Fe₂O₃.
 7. The method of claim 1 furthercomprising: providing an ion storage layer having a transmissivity,wherein the ion storage layer stores ions for transport across the ionconduction layer and into the ion insertion layer and wherein thetransmissivity of the ion storage layer is not substantially changed. 8.The method of claim 7 wherein the ion storage layer is tin oxide.
 9. Themethod of claim 7 further comprising providing a transparentelectrically conductive oxide adjacent the ion storage layer.
 10. Themethod of claim 1 wherein the ion insertion layer is vanadium pentoxide,the method further comprising: emitting an optical signal having awavelength in the range from about 0.8 microns to about 1.7 microns. 11.The method of claim 1 further comprising providing a transparentelectrically conductive oxide adjacent the ion insertion layer.
 12. Themethod of claim 1 further comprising providing a transparentelectrically conductive oxide adjacent the ion conduction layer.
 13. Themethod of claim 1 wherein the inserting further comprises applying anelectric field across the ion insertion layer and the ion conductionlayer.
 14. The method of claim 1 further comprising: extracting the ionsfrom the ion insertion layer into the ion conduction layer, wherein:during the extracting, the imaginary portion of the dielectric constantchanges from a second value to a fifth value and the real portion of thedielectric constant changes from a fourth value to a sixth value at thewavelength of interest or at the operational wavelength; the absolutevalue of the difference between the fifth value and the second value isless than 2% of the first value; and the absolute value of thedifference between the sixth value and the fourth value is less than 2%of the third value.
 15. The method of claim 1 wherein the ion insertionlayer is formed by a process, wherein the process is selected from thegroup consisting of thermal evaporation, electron beam evaporation,chemical vapor deposition, plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition,magnetron sputtering, ion sputtering, sol-gel deposition, co-depositionwith polymeric or transition metal oxide materials, and deposition froma melt.
 16. The method of claim 1 wherein the ion conduction layer isformed by a process, wherein the process is selected from the groupconsisting of thermal evaporation, electron beam evaporation, chemicalvapor deposition, plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition, magnetronsputtering, ion sputtering, sol-gel deposition, co-deposition withpolymeric or transition metal oxide materials, and deposition from amelt.
 17. A method for modulating a refractive index of an ion insertionlayer in an optical device, the ion insertion layer having a dielectricconstant, the dielectric constant having a real portion and an imaginaryportion, the method comprising: providing an ion conduction layeradjacent the ion insertion layer; inserting ions from the ion conductionlayer into the ion insertion layer; and extracting the ions from the ioninsertion layer into the ion conduction layer; wherein: during theinserting, the imaginary portion of the dielectric constant changes froma first value to a second value and the real portion of the dielectricconstant changes from a third value to a fourth value; the absolutevalue of the difference between the second value and the first value isless than the absolute value of the difference between the fourth valueand the third value; during the extracting, the imaginary portion of thedielectric constant changes from a second value to a fifth value and thereal portion of the dielectric constant changes from a fourth value to asixth value; the absolute value of the difference between the fifthvalue and the second value is less than 2% of the first value; and theabsolute value of the difference between the sixth value and the fourthvalue is less than 2% of the third value.
 18. The method of claim 17wherein the ion insertion layer is formed by a process, wherein theprocess is selected from the group consisting of thermal evaporation,electron beam evaporation, chemical vapor deposition, plasma enhancedchemical vapor deposition, magnetron sputtering, ion sputtering, sol-geldeposition, co-deposition with polymeric or transition metal oxidematerials, and deposition from a melt.
 19. The method of claim 17wherein the ion conduction layer is formed by a process, wherein theprocess is selected from the group consisting of thermal evaporation,electron beam evaporation, chemical vapor deposition, plasma enhancedchemical vapor deposition, magnetron sputtering, ion sputtering, sol-geldeposition, co-deposition with polymeric or transition metal oxidematerials, and deposition from a melt.
 20. A method for modulating arefractive index of an ion insertion layer in an optical device, therefractive index having a real portion and an imaginary portion, themethod comprising: providing an ion conduction layer adjacent the ioninsertion layer; inserting ions from the ion conduction layer to the ioninsertion layer; and wherein: during the inserting, the real portionchanges from a first value to a second value and the imaginary portionchanges from a third value to a fourth value; the difference between thesecond value and the first value is greater than 0.1; and the differencebetween the fourth value and the third value is less than 0.2.
 21. Themethod of claim 20 wherein the ion insertion layer is vanadiumpentoxide.
 22. The method of claim 20 wherein the ion conduction layercomprises a metal oxide.
 23. The method of claim 20 wherein the ionconduction layer comprises a metal oxide having lithium.
 24. The methodof claim 20 wherein the ion conduction layer is Li₂O—P₂O₅—A_(b)O_(x),wherein A_(b)O_(x) is selected from the group consisting of WO₃, TiO₂,and Fe₂O₃.
 25. The method of claim 20 further comprising: providing anion storage layer having a transmissivity, wherein the ion storage layerstores ions for transport across the ion conduction layer and into theion insertion layer and wherein the transmissivity of the ion storagelayer is not substantially changed.
 26. The method of claim 25 whereinthe ion storage layer is tin oxide.
 27. The method of claim 20 furthercomprising providing a transparent conductive oxide adjacent the ionstorage layer.
 28. The method of claim 20 wherein the ion insertionlayer is vanadium pentoxide, the method further comprising: emitting anoptical signal having a wavelength in the range from about 0.8 micronsto about 1.7 microns.
 29. The method of claim 20 further comprisingproviding a transparent conductive oxide adjacent the ion insertionlayer.
 30. The method of claim 20 further comprising providing atransparent conductive oxide adjacent the ion conduction layer.
 31. Themethod of claim 20 wherein the inserting further comprises applying anelectric field across the ion insertion layer and the ion conductionlayer.
 32. The method of claim 20 further comprising extracting the ionsfrom the ion insertion layer into the ion conduction layer.
 33. Themethod of claim 20 wherein the ion insertion layer is formed by aprocess, wherein the process is selected from the group consisting ofthermal evaporation, electron beam evaporation, chemical vapordeposition, plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition, magnetronsputtering, ion sputtering, sol-gel deposition, co-deposition withpolymeric or transition metal oxide materials, and deposition from amelt.
 34. The method of claim 20 wherein the ion conduction layer isformed by a process, wherein the process is selected from the groupconsisting of thermal evaporation, electron beam evaporation, chemicalvapor deposition, plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition, magnetronsputtering, ion sputtering, sol-gel deposition, co-deposition withpolymeric or transition metal oxide materials, and deposition from amelt.
 35. An iono-refractive device comprising: an ion conductionmaterial; and an ion insertion material adjacent the ion conductionmaterial, the ion insertion material having a refractive index, therefractive index having a real portion and an imaginary portion;wherein: upon insertion of ions from the ion conduction layer into theion insertion layer, the imaginary portion of the refractive indexchanges from a first value to a second value and the real portion of therefractive index changes from a third value to a fourth value; and theabsolute value of the difference between the second value and the firstvalue is less than the absolute value of the difference between thefourth value and the third value.
 36. The device of claim 35 wherein theion insertion layer is vanadium pentoxide.
 37. The device of claim 35wherein the ion conduction layer comprises a metal oxide.
 38. The deviceof claim 35 wherein the ion conduction layer comprises a metal oxidehaving lithium.
 39. The device of claim 35 wherein the ion conductionlayer is Li₂O—P₂O₅—A_(b)O_(x), wherein A_(b)O_(x) is selected from thegroup consisting of WO₃, TiO₂, and Fe₂O₃.
 40. The device of claim 35further comprising an ion storage layer.
 41. The device of claim 40wherein the ion storage layer is tin oxide.
 42. The device of claim 40further comprising a transparent conductive oxide layer adjacent the ionstorage layer.
 43. The device of claim 35 further comprising atransparent conductive oxide layer adjacent the ion conduction layer.44. The device of claim 35 further comprising a transparent conductiveoxide layer adjacent the ion insertion layer.
 45. An iono-refractivedevice comprising: an ion conduction material; and an ion insertionmaterial adjacent the ion conduction material, the ion insertionmaterial having a refractive index, the refractive index having a realportion and an imaginary portion; wherein upon insertion of ions fromthe ion conduction layer into the ion insertion layers the real portionof the refractive index changes by more than about 0.1 and the imaginaryportion of the refractive index changes by less than about 0.2.
 46. Thedevice of claim 45 wherein the ion insertion layer is vanadiumpentoxide.
 47. The device of claim 45 wherein the ion conduction layercomprises a metal oxide.
 48. The device of claim 45 wherein the ionconduction layer comprises a metal oxide having lithium.
 49. The deviceof claim 45 wherein the ion conduction layer is Li₂O—P₂O₅—A_(b)O_(x),wherein A_(b)O_(x) is selected from the group consisting of WO₃, TiO₂,and Fe₂O₃.
 50. The device of claim 45 further comprising an ion storagelayer.
 51. The device of claim 50 wherein the ion storage layer is tinoxide.
 52. The device of claim 50 further comprising a transparentconductive oxide layer adjacent the ion storage layer.
 53. The device ofclaim 45 further comprising a transparent conductive oxide layeradjacent the ion conduction layer.
 54. The device of claim 45 furthercomprising a transparent conductive oxide layer adjacent the ioninsertion layer.
 55. An apparatus for modulating a refractive index ofan ion insertion layer in an optical device, the ion insertion layerhaving a dielectric constant, the dielectric constant having a realportion and an imaginary portion, the apparatus comprising: means forproviding an ion conduction layer adjacent the ion insertion layer; andmeans for inserting ions from the ion conduction layer into the ioninsertion layer; wherein: during the inserting, the imaginary portion ofthe dielectric constant changes from a first value to a second value andthe real portion of the dielectric constant changes from a third valueto a fourth value at the wavelength of interest or at the operationalwavelength; and the absolute value of the difference between the secondvalue and the first value is less than the absolute value of thedifference between the fourth value and the third value.
 56. Theapparatus of claim 55 wherein the ion insertion layer is formed by aprocess, wherein the process is selected from the group consisting ofthermal evaporation, electron beam evaporation, chemical vapordeposition, plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition, magnetronsputtering, ion sputtering, sol-gel deposition, co-deposition withpolymeric or transition metal oxide materials, and deposition from amelt.
 57. The apparatus of claim 55 wherein the ion conduction layer isformed by a process, wherein the process is selected from the groupconsisting of thermal evaporation, electron beam evaporation, chemicalvapor deposition, plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition, magnetronsputtering, ion sputtering, sol-gel deposition, co-deposition withpolymeric or transition metal oxide materials, and deposition from amelt.
 58. An apparatus for modulating a refractive index of an ioninsertion layer in an optical device, the refractive index having a realportion and an imaginary portion, the apparatus comprising: means forproviding an ion conduction layer adjacent the ion insertion layer; andmeans for inserting ions from the ion conduction layer to the ioninsertion layer; wherein: during the inserting, the real portion changesfrom a first value to a second value and the imaginary portion changesfrom a third value to a fourth value; the absolute value of thedifference between the second value and the first value is greater than0.1; and the absolute value difference between the fourth value and thethird value is less than 0.2.
 59. The apparatus of claim 58 wherein theion insertion layer is formed by a process, wherein the process isselected from the group consisting of thermal evaporation, electron beamevaporation, chemical vapor deposition, plasma enhanced chemical vapordeposition, magnetron sputtering, ion sputtering, sol-gel deposition,co-deposition with polymeric or transition metal oxide materials, anddeposition from a melt.
 60. The apparatus of claim 58 wherein the ionconduction layer is formed by a process, wherein the process is selectedfrom the group consisting of thermal evaporation, electron beamevaporation, chemical vapor deposition, plasma enhanced chemical vapordeposition, magnetron sputtering, ion sputtering, sol-gel deposition,co-deposition with polymeric or transition metal oxide materials, anddeposition from a melt.
 61. A method for modulating a refractive indexof an ion insertion layer in an optical device, the refractive indexhaving a real portion and an imaginary portion, the method comprising:providing the ion insertion layer that is weakly electrochromic;providing an ion conduction layer adjacent the ion insertion layer; andinserting ions from the ion conduction layer into the ion insertionlayer; wherein: during the inserting, the real portion changes from afirst value to a second value and the imaginary portion changes from athird value to a fourth value; the absolute value of the differencebetween the second value and the first value is greater than 0.1; andthe absolute value of the difference between the fourth value and thethird value is less than 0.2.
 62. The method of claim 61 wherein the ioninsertion layer is formed by a process, wherein the process is selectedfrom the group consisting of thermal evaporation, electron beamevaporation, chemical vapor deposition, plasma enhanced chemical vapordeposition, magnetron sputtering, ion sputtering, sol-gel deposition,co-deposition with polymeric or transition metal oxide materials, anddeposition from a melt.
 63. The method of claim 61 wherein the ionconduction layer is formed by a process, wherein the process is selectedfrom the group consisting of thermal evaporation, electron beamevaporation, chemical vapor deposition, plasma enhanced chemical vapordeposition, magnetron sputtering, ion sputtering, sol-gel deposition,co-deposition with polymeric or transition metal oxide materials, anddeposition from a melt.
 64. A method for modulating a refractive indexof an ion insertion layer in an optical device, the ion insertion layerhaving a lattice structure, the refractive index having a real portionand an imaginary portion, the method comprising: providing an ionconduction layer adjacent the ion insertion layer; and inserting ionsfrom the ion conduction layer into the ion insertion layer; wherein:during the inserting, the lattice structure of the ion insertion layerchanges and the real portion changes from a first value to a secondvalue and the imaginary portion changes from a third value to a fourthvalue; the absolute value of the difference between the second value andthe first value is greater than 0.1; and the absolute value of thedifference between the fourth value and the third value is substantiallydiminished in response to changing the lattice structure.
 65. The methodof claim 64 wherein the ion insertion layer is formed by a process,wherein the process is selected from the group consisting of thermalevaporation, electron beam evaporation, chemical vapor deposition,plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition, magnetron sputtering, ionsputtering, sol-gel deposition, co-deposition with polymeric ortransition metal oxide materials, and deposition from a melt.
 66. Themethod of claim 64 wherein the ion conduction layer is formed by aprocess, wherein the process is selected from the group consisting ofthermal evaporation, electron beam evaporation, chemical vapordeposition, plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition, magnetronsputtering, ion sputtering, sol-gel deposition, co-deposition withpolymeric or transition metal oxide materials, and deposition from amelt.
 67. A method for modulating a refractive index of an ion insertionlayer in an optical device, the refractive index having a real portionand an imaginary portion, the method comprising: providing an ionconduction layer adjacent the ion insertion layer; annealing the ioninsertion layer in an oxygen atmosphere; and inserting the ions from theion conduction layer into the ion insertion layer; wherein: during theinserting, the real portion changes from a first value to a second valueand the imaginary portion changes from a third value to a fourth value;the absolute value of the difference between the second value and thefirst value is greater than 0.1; and the absolute value of thedifference between the fourth value and the third value is substantiallydiminished in response to annealing the ion insertion layer.
 68. Themethod of claim 67 wherein the ion insertion layer is formed by aprocess, wherein the process is selected from the group consisting ofthermal evaporation, electron beam evaporation, chemical vapordeposition, plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition, magnetronsputtering, ion sputtering, sol-gel deposition, co-deposition withpolymeric or transition metal oxide materials, and deposition from amelt.
 69. The method of claim 67 wherein the ion conduction layer isformed by a process, wherein the process is selected from the groupconsisting of thermal evaporation, electron beam evaporation, chemicalvapor deposition, plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition, magnetronsputtering, ion sputtering, sol-gel deposition, co-deposition withpolymeric or transition metal oxide materials, and deposition from amelt.